Unveiling The Nexus: Exploring The Relationship Between Drug Use And Criminal Behaviour

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Abstract 

Over the past few years, the use of drugs among individuals has increased. This increase in drug use has caused adverse effects over the lives of many individuals such as the development of criminal behaviour, mental and physical health issues and loss of essential life activities. The connotation among the consumption and misuse of drugs, as well as criminal behaviours and actions is multidimensional as well as complicated depending upon many different kinds and aspects of personal, societal, and environmental factors. There has been much investigation and exploration regarding the association between substance and drug misuse as well as criminality, there is still knowledge gap within the literature comprehending and understanding the fundamental processes, procedures, causal relationships and associations that interconnect these phenomena. In this manner, this study has focused on determining the association among drug use and criminal behaviour. For this purpose, the qualitative research design was adopted and data was gathered from secondary sources of information. The systematic literature review was conducted including the 10 articles related to the topic. The results determined that there is an association among drug use and criminal behaviour. The factors besides the drug use that lead to criminal behaviour include psychopathy, low self-control and difficult temperament. 

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of Study

Drug misuse and criminal behaviour represent severe and substantial societal issues and problems which are having serious effects and influences on the health-care and safety of the population (Manhica et al., 2021). As per the Caroppo et al. (2023) International Drugs Survey, 269 million people and individuals globally were involved and engaged in illicit drug consumption and abuse at least once during 2018, which contributes to the worldwide drugs and substance epidemic posing a critical risk and threat to peoples security and well-being. Furthermore, cocaine, heroin, as well as drugs such as meth remain major and substantial factors contributing to health-care issues and problems as well as societal expenditures, including approximately 35 million individuals affected by drug and substance misuse illnesses and diseases worldwide. The relationship among consumption and misuse of drugs as well as criminal behaviours has been thoroughly demonstrated and identified within empirical investigations. Fox et al. (2021) analysis has frequently demonstrated and illustrated that people and individuals who are involved in criminal activities, behaviour and actions have a higher prevalence and likelihood of substance and drug usage. For example, Turgumbayev et al. (2022) reported that approximately 50% of individuals and people who were imprisoned for big offences and criminal activities tested positive for at least one prohibited and restricted drug. 

Furthermore, Monyepao et al. (2022) have reported within the Journal of Drug Problems indicate and illustrates that drug usage and misuse represents a strong predictor and indicator of being involved in criminal activities, and behaviours involving property, with offenders who consume and misuse drugs having a greater tendency and likelihood to commit thefts, robberies as well as steal into homes. Moreover, despite massive as well as huge expenditures and spending within law enforcement and preventative efforts and measures, associations among the consumption and misuse of drugs as well as criminal behaviours exist. Kuettel et al. (2021) found that drug-related criminality expenditures and spending within the UK reached approximately $193 billion a year, including productivity losses, law enforcement expenditures, and health care. This continually evolving and emerging relationship poses complicated challenges and issues for governments, law enforcement institutions, and health-care practitioners, requiring many different approaches and interventions for addressing these issues and problems appropriately and effectively.

1.2 Problem Statement

The association between the consumption and misuse of drugs, as well as criminal behaviours and actions, was multidimensional as well as complicated depending upon many different kinds and aspects of personal, societal, as well as environmental factors and variables (Monyepao et al., 2022). While many investigations and examinations have investigated and explored the association between substance and drug misuse as well as criminality, there are still knowledge gaps within the literature comprehending and understanding the fundamental processes, procedures, causal relationships and associations that interconnect these phenomena. As a result, deeper as well as in-depth investigations have been needed to investigate as well as explore the interrelationship of socioeconomic backgrounds and individual, societal as well and environmental variables associated with drug-related criminal behaviours and actions. The combination of consumption and misuse of drugs, as well as criminal behaviours, presents particular challenges and difficulties for politicians, law enforcement officers, as well as healthcare practitioners and experts. Traditional strategies and measures for avoiding and minimising criminal activity, as well as enforcement of drug laws and regulations, frequently failed to adequately and appropriately compensate for the complicated relationship of substance and drug misuse, mental health-care disorders and illness, as well as inequality within society. To effectively address those challenges and issues, multidisciplinary study and investigation which overcome the knowledge gap among the criminal justice system, public health care, as well as social welfare agencies and institutions need to be done, along with collaboration as well as innovation within the substance and drug-related preventable crimes.

1.3 Research Aims and Objectives

The primary aim of the current analysis was to explore the relationship between drug use and criminal behaviours with a focus on understanding the underlying mechanisms, identifying risk factors as well as evaluating intervention strategies. The objectives of the current analysis are as follows.

• To investigate the strength and nature of the link between drug use and various types of criminal behaviour across socioeconomic backgrounds. 
• To explore other factors besides drugs that lead to criminality, analysing the overall influence on behaviour.
• To assess existing policies and legislation aimed at mitigating drug-related criminal behaviour.
• To provide recommendations for identifying preventive interventions and support systems that are most effective in reducing the likelihood of individuals engaging in criminal activity due to drug use.

1.4 Research Questions

The research questions for the current analysis are as follows:

• Do numerous non-drug-related aspects combine and increase the risk of engaging in criminal activities as compared to drug-related?
• What preventive interventions or support systems are most effective in reducing the likelihood of individuals engaging in criminal activity due to drug use? 
• What are the recommendations for identifying preventive interventions and support systems that are most effective in reducing the likelihood of individuals engaging in criminal activity due to drug use?

1.5 Rationale of Study

1.6 Scope of Dissertation

The current research paper has Primarily investigated as well as assessed the association between the consumption and misuse of drugs as well as criminal behaviours, having particular focus and concentration on comprehending the variations and fluctuations within influence within socioeconomic groups and backgrounds. In addition, the impact and influence of drug abuse and misuse upon criminal behaviours and actions have been examined, along with the responsibilities played by environmental variables and aspects, mental health-care issues and problems, as well as socioeconomic position. This investigation has also been assessing and investigating current drug-related criminal behaviour, actions, regulations as well as measures in order to determine effective approaches, interventions as well as areas that are in need of development.

1.7 Dissertation Structure

1.7.1 Chapter 1: Introduction

This research chapter provides background information for the investigation and is associated with an examination of the relationship between drug use and criminal behaviours with a focus on understanding the underlying mechanisms, identifying risk factors, and evaluating intervention strategies. This chapter discusses the aim and objectives of the investigation's paper, and it also discusses the topic as well as the overall structure of the investigation. 

1.7.2 Chapter 2: Literature Review

The second chapter of the present study examines as well as discusses the relationship between drug use and criminal behaviours with a focus on understanding the underlying mechanisms, identifying risk factors as well as evaluating intervention strategies. It also examines as well as assesses studies of the databases of already published works, which contain and include knowledge as well as details about literature. It also provides as well as offers insights into the topics as well as problems being addressed, as well as theoretical frameworks that have been appropriate as well as applicable to the investigation at hand.

1.7.3 Chapter 3: Methodology

The third section of this current research project explores as well as examines into the approaches as well as research methodologies utilised for evaluating as well as examining the association among drug use, misuse as well as criminal behaviours with a focus and concentration upon understanding the underlying mechanisms, identifying risk factors as well as evaluating intervention strategies and approaches. It also examines and evaluates the techniques and methods utilised for data collection, ensures effective and comprehensive procedures and processes for investigating, and evaluates existing policies and legislation aimed at mitigating and reducing drug-related criminal behaviours and actions.

1.7.4 Chapter 4: Results and Discussions

The fourth section empirically explores as well as assesses the association among drug use, misuse as well as criminal behaviours with a focus and concentration upon understanding the underlying mechanisms, identifying risk factors as well as evaluating intervention strategies and approaches. This chapter investigates and executes an in-depth study, addressing investigation-related questions while contrasting them to previous researchers' findings. 

1.7.5 Chapter 5: Conclusion and Recommendations

This fifth chapter of the research and investigation offers an in-depth as well as comprehensive overview of the primary findings and outcomes, along with information about the relationship between drug use and criminal behaviour with a focus on understanding the underlying mechanisms, identifying risk factors as well as evaluating intervention strategies. Furthermore, based on the investigation's outcomes, it offers practical recommendations as well as suggestions to the stakeholders in the industry.

1.8 Chapter Summary

This chapter of the research project provides an introductory overview and discussion of the investigation's topic, which includes the background information, problem statement, aims as well as objectives of the study, investigation questions, justification, scope, as well as structure of the current research paper. The next chapters will examine and asses into more depth upon the literature, methods, outcomes, discussion, as well as conclusion, offering and providing a thorough examination and analysis of the associations among the consumption and misuse of drugs along with criminal behaviours and actions, as well as policies and practices implications.

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW 

2.1 Introduction

This section of the study relates to the literature review in which the findings from the previous studies have been critically discussed related to the drug use and criminal behaviour. In this manner, this section includes the discussion over the strength and nature of the link between drug use and various types of criminal behaviour across socioeconomic backgrounds. In addition to this, the preventive interventions or support systems those are most effective in reducing the likelihood of individuals engaging in criminal activity due to drug use have also been determined in the literature review. Apart from this, several factors beside the drug use were determined which lead to criminal behaviour. Moreover, the existing policies and legislations aimed at mitigating the drug related criminal behaviour was also critically discussed in this section. Furthermore, the theoretical framework was included which draws upon relevant theory for this study. Lastly, the chapter summary is provided at the end of this section. 

2.2 Strength and Nature of the Link between Drug Use and Various Types of Criminal Behaviour across Socioeconomic Backgrounds

According to research, there has been a substantial association and relationship between the consumption and misuse of drugs as well as criminal behaviours and actions throughout different socioeconomic groups and categories, although the nature, force as well as intensity of this connection and relationship might have been different. For instance, an analysis carried out Karamanos et al. (2022) by stated that irrespective of socioeconomic backgrounds and situations indicates a greater likelihood and tendency of drug use and consumption between people and individuals associated with criminal activities and behaviours, which includes drug trafficking, criminal activity and actions involving property, along with violent offences and crimes. In accordance with the most current survey by Manhica et al. (2021), approximately 70% of those imprisoned and caged for substances and drug-related offences alleged and suspected of frequent consumption and abuse of drugs. The relationship between the consumption and misuse of drugs, as well as criminal behaviours and actions, has been complicated as well as has multiple effects, which are influenced and affected by socioeconomic factors and variables. Furthermore, an addiction to drug-related addictions affects all socioeconomic groups and peoples; the fundamental causes, reasons, as well as repercussions of drug-related criminality behaviours could have been different depending upon socioeconomic level. For example, a research paper and investigation that was carried out by Van de Weijer et al. (2022) stated that marginalisation and exclusion from society, as well as economic difficulties and problems, lead to an inappropriate representation of people and individuals from lower socioeconomic origins within substances as well as drug-related criminal behaviours and actions. A Manrique-Millones et al. (2021) finding also shows and illustrates a relationship and association between substance as well as drug-related offences and crime incidences as well as community disadvantage, with residents and people of economically disadvantaged and underprivileged regions having higher rates and incidences of criminal activities associated with drugs misuse and abuse. Moreover, higher socioeconomic backgrounds persons and individuals might also be more vulnerable and susceptible to drug misuse as well as associated criminal behaviours and actions. As a result, Airaksinen et al. (2021) indicate and illustrate that substance and drugs experimentation, as well as abuses amongst wealthy ethnic backgrounds groups, could have been influenced and affected by societal pressure, emotional distress as well as accessibility to disposable income. Turgumbayev et al. (2022) found that people from wealthier socioeconomic communities have been associated and engaged with a higher prevalence and tendency of drug misuse and abuse due to convenient accessibility and exposure to health-care facilities as well as socioeconomic relationships.

2.3 Preventive interventions or support systems are most effective in reducing the likelihood of individuals engaging in criminal activity due to drug use

Preventive interventions include a wide range of measures and interventions concentrated on reducing the consumption and misuse of drugs as well as reducing their negative and adverse repercussions for both individuals as well as the community. These programmes and interventions might involve, educational initiatives as well as community-based programmes and initiatives, along with laws and regulations that are aimed and intended at increasing drug misuse awareness (Evans et al., 2021). For example, Jones et al. (2022), have demonstrated that educational programmes and initiatives like the Drug Addictions Resistance Education (DARE) programme and initiatives were beneficial for lowering and decreasing the initial stages of drug usage,. In accordance with the Feltmann et al. (2021) investigation that appeared in the Journal of Experimental Criminology, Project ALERT, another school-based substance misuse preventive programme, has shown favourable outcomes in lowering the consumption of drugs along, with associated criminal behaviours,. Community-based initiatives, which include youth outreach programmes and rehabilitation services, provide support structures for people who are at risk of drug-related criminal behaviour, as well as different avenues to fulfilment as well as societal inclusion. 

Support systems play an important and significant role in dealing with the primary reasons behind addiction and misuse to drugs as well as criminal behaviours and actions. In order to address and overcome the underlying reasons for addictions along with associated behavioural issues and problems, it is essential to provide accessible as well as adequate health-care amenities and facilities, which include counselling for mental disorders, illness as well as drug abuse therapies and interventions (Hedrich et al., 2021). Airaksinen et al. (2021) stated that each dollar that has been spent on alcohol and drug rehabilitation programmes and initiatives saves UK society and communities approximately $7 on health care, law enforcement, and societal welfare expenditures and spending. People might overcome addictions and misuse of drugs as well as develop pro-social behaviours by participating and engaging in rehabilitative programmes and initiatives which involve cognitive-behavioural therapies, motivational interviews, as well as vocational educational programmes and training. Furthermore, Jones et al. (2022) societal programmes that help people transition back into society after spending their time in prison, including assistance with housing as well as job and employment opportunities, lower the risk of rehabilitation.

2.4 Factors besides Drugs That Leading to Criminality Behaviour

2.4.1 Psychopathy

In the global literature, the term psychopathy is commonly used on both the theoretical and empirical grounds. It has been argued in the study of Tharshini et al. (2021) that psychopathy is considered as the clinical construct which is related with the behavioural and emotional disturbance and are considered as the significant risk factors for antisocial and criminal behaviour. Most of the studies determining the measurement of psychopathy have employed checklist of Hare’s Psychopathy as the primary tool for psychological assessment to determine the presence of psychopathic traits among the individuals (DeMatteo et al., 2020; Tharshini et al., 2021). It has also been revealed by the growing evidence of the research that there is higher prevalence of psychopathic traits among the prisoners in contrast to general populations (Cunha, Braga and Gonçalves, 2021; Gatner et al., 2018). In general, as compared to the males, psychopathic females rarely repeat their criminal acts and tend to be less aggressive (Verona and Vitale, 2018). In addition to this, psychopathic females in some cases have significant level of impulsivity which is a trait often related to the borderline personality disorder (Verona and Vitale, 2018; Ivert et al., 2018). In this manner, the psychopathy is among the factors which lead towards the criminal behaviour beside the drug use. 

2.4.2 Low Self-Control

As per the study conducted by Tornquist and Miles (2019), while investigating the crime and the factors which are associated with it, the low self-control has found to be consistently linked with the criminal activities. However, the study of Forrest et al. (2019) argued that low self-control is related with the involvement in antisocial behaviour, violence and delinquency. It is due to the reason that individuals with low self-control tend to be more irresponsible, prone to risky behaviour, self-centred, impulsive and display volatile temperament. In addition to this, it has also been stated by Burt (2020) that low self-control leads to more criminal behaviour among the individuals. Due to this low self-control, individuals tend to lose temper and commit such acts which are prohibited or fall under the criminal offence. This low self-control is associated with the psychological behaviour of the individuals and is beside the use of any drug. 

2.4.3 Difficult Temperament

Involving the joint influence of individual dispositional characteristics and socio-ecological conditions, human development is considered as the complex phenomenon. It has been argued in the study of Strelau (2020) that the individual temperament is considered as the characteristic of the individual which involves habitual mode of emotional response to stimulus. On the other hand, the study of Aktar and Pérez-Edgar (2020) argued that temperament was traditionally considered as behavioural and emotional characteristic of feelings and is assumed to be rooted more biologically by heredity and maturation. In this manner, the parenting style, socio-economic status and home environment have found an influence over the child temperament (Verona and Vitale, 2018). For instance, the behavioural disorders among the children have been due to the negative parenting practices in which permissive parenting practice, harsh behaviour and inconsistent discipline practice are more prominent. In this regard, the youth who grew up in socio-economically disadvantaged households have difficult temperaments are exposed to toxic neighbourhood environment are more prone to be engaged in future criminality and delinquent behaviour across rural and urban context. 

2.5 Existing Policies and Legislation Aimed At Mitigating Drug-Related Criminal Behaviour

Mitigation of the drug related criminal behaviour has been one of the major concern for most of the countries (Rêgo et al., 2021). It is due to the reason that there has been an increase in drug related crimes over the years which has grabbed the attention of policy makers and regulations to develop such laws that can contribute towards the mitigation of drug related criminal behaviour. It has been argued in the study of Scheim et al. (2020) that the drug decriminalisation and legalisation is considered by some of the countries for certain type of drugs. For instance, Measure 110 was passed in Oregon, USA which decriminalised the possession of small amount of drugs while redirecting the funds towards the support services and addiction treatment (Russoniello et al., 2023). Instead of criminal records and arrests, people who had small amount of drugs were fined up to $100 and were also offered to contact a support line for completing the voluntary screening of health needs. Though, various governments are making more significant investments, in terms of enhancing access to rehabilitation and treatment services for individuals with drug use disorders,. Watson et al. (2020) stated that expanding rehabilitation and treatment services, includes measures to increase funding for addiction rehab programs, and improve access to medically assisted treatment.

2.6 Theoretical Framework

Kasap and Ünsal (2021), argued that Heider proposed attribution theory in 1958, which suggested that individuals form attitudes based on their perceptions,. In this way, attribution theory provides a framework for understanding how people's attitudes towards drug addiction, and criminal behaviour are formed, based on how they perceive the reasons for that behaviour. Volkow and Blanco (2023), in their study, suggested that internal factors such as moral defects, character defects and personality traits can lead people to engage in criminal behaviour and drug addiction. In this manner, the internal attribution can result in use of excessive drugs either due to the personality traits, character flaws or moral deficiencies and might lead to criminal offences. 

On the other hand, the study of Pedalono and Frailing (2018) argued that the social bound theory devised by Hirschi begins with the concept that majority of the people do not commit crimes instead questions why that is the case. However, this answer lies in the social bond as most of the people refrain from crime, particularly serious crime in order not to compromise their bond with the co-workers, teachers, friends and family members. There are four elements comprised in the social bond which include belief, involvement, commitment and attachment. Therefore, it posits that if the people are attached to social institutions, they typically do not engage in crime and the people in them are committed to institutions. In addition to this, those people and committed to institutions hold a law-abiding and normative belief system and also involved in the conventional activities. 

2.7 Chapter Summary 

This section of the study was based on the literature review related to the drug use and criminal behaviour. In this manner, it was determined form the past literature that there has been a substantial association and relationship between the consumption and misuse of drugs as well as criminal behaviours and actions throughout different socioeconomic groups. With respect to the preventive interventions, it was determined that these interventions and programmes can involve educational initiatives as well as community-based programmes and initiatives, along with laws and regulations that are aimed and intended at increasing drug misuse awareness. In terms of the factors besides drug use contributing towards the criminal behaviour, it was determined that psychopathy, low self-control and difficult temperament are the ones which leads to criminal behaviour apart from the use of drugs. In addition to this, the literature determined that drug decriminalisation and legalisation has been one of the most widely adopted policies which contributed towards the mitigation of drug use and related criminal behaviour. On the other hand, access to rehabilitation and treatment services for the individuals who are suffering with the substance abuse disorders has also been prominent while playing major role in mitigating the drug use related criminal behaviour among the individuals. 

CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 

3.1 Introduction

This section of the study shows the methodological choices made by the researcher for the purpose of conducting this study. In this manner, the description regarding the research philosophy along the research approach adopted by the researcher has been included. In addition to this, the research design adopted by the researcher has also been explained along the method used for the data collection. Through the discussion over the research design and method of data collection used, the researcher is able to convey the type of research adopted while justifying the methodological choices made. Moreover, the inclusion and exclusion criteria with the prisma framework is also included which provides description regarding the selection of studies for the analysis. Furthermore, the data analysis technique has been included along the research limitations and ethical considerations at the end of this section. 

3.2 Research Philosophy

According to Nickerson et al. (2022), the research philosophy highlights a researcher's viewpoint regarding carrying out evaluation. Interpretivism and positivism have been the two most common research paradigms adopted by researchers. For this particular study, the investigator used interpretive philosophy. The justification for utilising as well as integrating the interpretive research paradigm originated from the fact that it facilitated and simplified the capability of the investigators to effectively deal with and address the main objective of the present investigation, which was to investigate as well as analyse the degree as well as nature of the relationship and association among consumption and misuse of drugs as well as different kinds of criminal behaviours and actions that vary throughout socioeconomic backgrounds (Irshaidat et al., 2022). Another reason for implementing and employing an interpretive approach was that it makes it easier and simpler to examine several perspectives and viewpoints and uncover previously undiscovered concepts and ideas.

3.3 Research Approach

The analysis was carried out using and implementing investigation methodologies that incorporate several kinds and sorts of methodologies as well as processes (Okoli et al., 2023). Inductive and deductive approaches were the two most often utilised and integrated study methodologies that investigators and researchers utilised during their studies. In the present evaluation, the investigator utilised an inductive methodology. The rationale and justification for utilising an inductive strategy and approach has been that it allowed and facilitated a more rapid resolution of the current problems and issues of the current analysis (Love et al., 2022). Another justification and rationale behind employing and integrating an inductive technique within the present analysis has been that the investigator wanted to identify, recognise as well as analyse the degree as well as nature of the relationship and association among the consumptions of drugs as well as different kinds and sorts of criminal behaviours and actions that vary throughout different socioeconomic backgrounds. The deductive methodology has been significantly less appropriate and inadequate for the proposed examination since it relies substantially upon statistical data that validates and confirms the investigation's hypotheses.

3.4 Research Design

The research design includes methodologies that describe and specify the overall decision-making process, procedures, and techniques for gathering and interpreting data. Investigators frequently utilise mixed, qualitative, and quantitative investigation designs. Furthermore, this systematic evaluation of the literature has been conducted by employing a secondary qualitative investigation methodology, which allowed and facilitated the researcher to investigate as well as analyse the existing policies and legislation aimed at mitigating drug-related criminal behaviour (Flick et al., 2022). Another rationale of qualitative research methodology is that it allows the researcher to examine the degree as well as nature of the relationship between the consumption of drugs as well as different kinds of criminal behaviour that vary throughout socioeconomic backgrounds. A qualitative research approach was significantly more suitable and advantageous for this particular evaluation since it utilised an extensive number of theoretical principles (Corti et al., 2022).

3.5 Data Collection Method

There are two types of data collection methods which include the primary method of data collection and the secondary method of data collection (Mazhar et al., 2021). In the secondary method of data collection, the readily available data is considered from the online sources which include the books, articles, magazines, journals, news websites, blogs and other relevant and authentic sources (Ortega, 2020). On the other hand, primary data is the one in which the data is gathered for the first time and has never been used previously (Mazhar et al., 2021). This type of data is the real time data which is solely gathered for special purpose and through the survey, interviews and observations or focused groups. In this study, the researcher has adopted the secondary method of data collection in which the readily available data has been considered for the analysis. The study of Ivert and Magnusson (2020) also used similar method for data collection while investigating the criminality and drug use among the unaccompanied refugee minors. Another study of Albery, McSweeney and Hough (2013) used the secondary method of data collection for the purpose of determining the direct, indirect and causal relationship among the use of drugs and criminal behaviour. 

3.6 Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria 

The inclusion and exclusion criteria for the selection of articles used in analysis is provided below:

Table 1: Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria

3.7 Prisma Framework 

Below is the prisma framework which shows the selection of studies for the analysis based on the inclusion and exclusion criteria. 

3.8 Data Analysis Technique

The data analysis technique represents and illustrates a phrase utilised and integrated to describe the procedure and processes of evaluating evidence (Salm et al., 2021). A systematic literature review has been carried out for this examination. However, the rationale and justification for using systematic literature review has been that it facilitated and permitted a more comprehensive evaluation of pertinent academic articles, publications, and appropriate secondary information. Another reason and justification for employing this method was to aid in the collection of data on the degree as well as nature of the relationship between the consumption of drugs as well as different kinds of criminal behaviour that vary throughout socioeconomic backgrounds. It permitted and facilitated the researchers to acquire and gather information regarding certain aspects of the investigation that earlier researchers and investigators had overlooked. 

3.9 Research Limitations 

This study has been carried out for the purpose of exploring the relationship among the drug use and criminal behaviour. The study has focused on determining the association among the two factors and planned to present significant findings for the policy makers and regulatory authorities for the purpose of mitigating the drug use and related criminal behaviour among the individuals. However, there are several limitations of this study which must be considered. Firstly, the research has focused in the relationship among the drug use and criminal behaviour caused by the use of substance. There are several other factors which leads to the criminal behaviour and should have been determined for the purpose of increasing the scope of this study. On the other hand, the study has adopted the secondary methods of data collection which restricts the researcher to present the findings based on the previous information available. The consideration of the primary methods of data collection would have helped the researcher to incorporate the real time response and updated information regarding the use of drugs and criminal behaviour. In this way, the scope of this study could have been improved and the researcher might be able to present more significant findings while contributing towards the existing literature.

3.10 Ethical Considerations 

This study has been carried out in accordance with the ethical considerations. The data in this study has been gathered from the secondary sources of information which increase the risk of presenting false information and manipulation of the results. However, in this study, the researcher has ensured that the findings from previous studies have been used as it is and no manipulation or amendment was made in the findings of those studies. On the other hand, providing credit for the work of previous researchers has also been a critical issue which must be considered while conducting the secondary study. In this manner, the researcher has ensured that credit for the past researchers is provided in order to acknowledge their work in this field by citing their names. 

CHAPTER 4: RESULTS AND ANALYSIS

4.1 Introduction 

This section of the study is based on the results and analysis with respect to determining the relationship between the drug use and criminal behaviour. In this manner, the data in this study has been gathered from the secondary sources of information which involves the peer reviewed articles and journals. The studies have been selected based in the inclusion and exclusion criteria defined in the previous section. For the analysis, the section of systematic literature review has been included in which the table provides summary for all the selected articles in this study. After the summary of the selected studies, an empirical review of all the articles have been carried out and are critically analysed based in the previous studies. On the other hand, the section of discussion has also been included in this chapter which critically compares the findings of this study with the findings of already established studies. 

4.2 Systematic Literature Review 

Table 2 Systematic Literature Review

The study of Pierce et al. (2017) determined either the individuals tested positive for opiates have more risk of involving in the criminal activities. For this purpose, the study considered the analysis of historical offending records among adults which are associated to the test results of cocaine and opiate metabolites. In order to retrieve data for the age of opiate initiation, adults testing positive were linked to treatment records. The results of the study revealed that with respect to the crime categories, the difference among the group is exacerbated by the initiation of opiate. On the other hand, it has also been indicated that there might be effective opiate prevention initiatives in terms of reducing offending, particularly among females. Kennedy, Heron, and Munafò (2017) explored the association among the criminal behaviour, substance use, psychiatric symptoms and mild TBI. The participants were identified from the parent and self-reports up to age 16 years. The criminal behaviour and substance use measures were considered from self-reports. The findings of the study revealed that in relation to those having no injury, there were increased odds of problematic use of cannabis and tobacco among participants with TB being in trouble with the police while having more parent reported conduct problems. In this manner, it is suggested that the increased use of drugs such as cannabis and tobacco leads to increase crime rate or develop criminal behaviour among the individuals. 

The study of DeBeck et al (2017) determine the relationship among the drug use, criminal behaviour and HIV treatment and prevention among the individuals. With respect to the method, the researcher adopted the qualitative method in which the data was gathered from secondary sources of information. In terms of the analysis, the study used the systematic literature review in which the studies were selected following the PRISMA guidelines. The findings of the study suggested that the increased use of drugs can make it more likely for the individuals to engage in criminal offence. It is due to the reason that in order to fulfil their drug addiction, individuals commit crimes as they no longer differentiate among the adequate behaviour or the society. In this manner, they sacrifice their social recognition in order to fulfil their drug addiction and commit crimes. 

As per the study of Anderberg, Dahlberg, and Wennberg (2022), the minor drug violations are emphasised by the Swedish drug policy. In this manner, the study was conducted in order to determine the relationship among the substance use and criminality problems among the young people who had outpatient treatment and to determine the risk factors which suggested the continued problems associated with criminality. There were few follow-up studied but the research on this target group is still a debatable topic in Sweden. It has been indicated by the study that outpatient treatment begin by young people were convicted of crimes at 1 year follow up. In addition to this, most of the young people who were convicted, were involved in the substance use. This depicts that the use of drugs leads to criminal behaviour among the individuals and especially the young people.

On the other hand, the study of Turnbull (2019) determined the relationship among the drug users and criminal offences. The study adopted the qualitative research design in which the data was gathered from the secondary sources of information. The data gathered was analysed using the systematic literature review and meta-analysis. The results of the study determined that offences such as crime against person which include assault, rape and murder were conducted by high proportion of drug users. Therefore, considering these findings, it is suggested to have greater considerations to drug dependency as it is considered as the significant factor for the criminal behaviour. On the other hand, the results of the study also provided the determination of how various drug types might give rise to diverse criminal offending patterns. In addition to this, the study of Tharshini and Ibrahim (2023) focused on defining different patterns of criminal offending and its relationship with various drugs. The study was qualitative in nature and the data was gathered from secondary sources of information. 

The analysis was carried out using the systematic literature review and meta-analysis technique. Several studies were considered for the analysis which were related to the topic and were appropriate as per the eligibility criteria.. The findings of the study determined that different patterns of criminal offending are raised due to the rise in consumption of different kinds of drugs. From this review, it is apparent that there is higher likelihood of individuals with poly-drug consumption of engaging in diverse offence types. Therefore, the key indicators of the criminality and drug use should be explored in greater detail. 

The study of Pérez and Ruiz (2017) identified the relationship among the substance use and criminal behaviour. The study was qualitative in nature and the data was gathered from secondary sources of information. The analysis was carried out using the systematic literature review and meta-analysis technique. The results of the study determined that it was confirmed by 78% of the review studies included in the study that the exposure or consumption of some type of substance or drug make the individual more prone towards the criminal behaviour. Considering the study of I Hassan, F Assassa, and M Al-Wakeel (2016), drug abuse and related crimes were identified. 

This study gathered the data from secondary sources of information and was qualitative in nature. In this manner, a review of issues in the previous studies was identified to highlight trends and patterns related to the drug abuse and crime with regards to the influence of drug abuse over various crimes. The findings from the study determined that in order to fund a drug habit, individuals are more into the economic related crimes. On the other hand, the structure related crimes are resulted due to the drug system’s structure including the crimes of sales, transportation, manufacture and production of drugs. While the pre-existing criminal activity can be perpetuated and amplified by the serious drug abuse. 

Moreover, the study of Riordan (2017) identified the connection among the crime and drug use in Western Australia. The study was qualitative in nature and the data was gathered from primary sources of information. However, the interviews were conducted from 11 Aboriginal and 22 non-Aboriginal adult male offenders from Western Australia. The thematic analysis was carried out for the purpose of analysing the results gathered through interviews. The findings of the study determined two distinct models which emerged from two cultural groups. In this manner, both of the models indicated in both the crime and drug use as a life-style on the basis of biopsycho-social framework. Lastly, the study of Håkansson and Jesionowska (2018) focused on determining the relationship among the type of crime and substance use among the prisoners having problems of substance use and emphasised on violence and fatal violence. In this study, the qualitative method was adopted and the data was gathered from primary sources of data. The interviews were conducted from prisoners having problems of substance use. The data was analysed through the addition severity index. The results from the logistic regression determined that injecting drug, cocaine, amphetamine and heroine were negatively associated with the violent crime. 

4.3 Discussion 

4.3.1 Objective 1: To investigate the strength and nature of the link between drug use and various types of criminal behaviour across socioeconomic backgrounds

The first objective of the study is related to the strength and nature of the link between drug use and various types of criminal behaviour across socioeconomic backgrounds. In this manner, it has been determined from the analysis that the drug use is associated with the violent criminal activity. The study of Karamanos et al. (2022) also supported that irrespective of socioeconomic backgrounds and situations, there is a greater likelihood and tendency of drug use and consumption among individuals associated with criminal activities and behaviours, which includes drug trafficking, criminal activity and actions involving property, along with violent offences and crimes. Another study of Manhica et al. (2021) argued that most of those imprisoned and caged for substances and drug-related offences alleged and suspected of frequent consumption and abuse of drugs. 

Another study of Van de Weijer et al. (2022) stated that economic difficulties and problems, as well as, marginalisation and exclusion from society, lead to an inappropriate representation of people and individuals from lower socioeconomic origins within substances as well as drug-related criminal behaviours and actions. Another study of Manrique-Millones et al. (2021) shows and illustrates a relationship and association between substance as well as drug-related offences and crime incidences. However, the study of Håkansson and Jesionowska (2018) determined negative influence of drug use with the criminal behaviour among the individuals. 

4.3.2. Objective 2: To explore other factors besides drugs that lead to criminality, analysing the overall influence on behaviour

The second objective of the study is related to the factors besides drugs that lead to criminality while analysing the overall influence on behaviour. It has been determined from the findings that the study of DeBeck et al. (2017) found various factors along the drug use which contributed positively towards the criminal behaviour among individuals. In a similar manner, Tharshini et al. (2021) determined that psychopathy is considered as the clinical construct which is related with the behavioural and emotional disturbance and are considered as the significant risk factors for antisocial and criminal behaviour. On the other hand, the study of Gatner et al. (2018) and Cunha, Braga and Gonçalves (2021) argued that there is higher prevalence of psychopathic traits among the prisoners in contrast to general populations. In addition to this, the study of Tornquist and Miles (2019) determined the factors which are associated with it, the low self-control has found to be consistently linked with the criminal activities. Another study of Forrest et al. (2019) argued that low self-control is related with the involvement in antisocial behaviour, violence and delinquency. Similarly, the study of Aktar and Pérez-Edgar (2020) also determined that the youth who grew up in socio-economically disadvantaged households have difficult temperaments and experience toxic neighbourhood environment are more prone to be engaged in future criminality and delinquent behaviour across rural and urban context.

4.3.3 Objective 3: To assess existing policies and legislation aimed at mitigating drug-related criminal behaviour

The third objective of the study is related with the assessment of existing policies and legislation aimed at mitigating drug-related criminal behaviour. It has been determined that most of the countries have focused on drug decriminalisation and legalisation for the purpose of mitigating the drug related criminal behaviour. It has also been discussed in the study of Cheim et al. (2020) that the drug decriminalisation and legalisation is considered by some of countries for certain types of drugs. Under this, the individuals with small quantities of drugs are not charged with criminal offence. Instead, they are charged with fine and a voluntary check-up for all the health concerns. On the other hand, the increased investment in the rehabilitation and treatment services have also proved to be beneficial for the governing bodies as people with drug use are provided with free of cost treatment. The study of Watson et al. (2020) also stated that increasing access to rehabilitation and treatment services involves initiatives for increased funding of addiction treatment programs and enhanced access to medication-assisted treatment. However, the development of an effective framework for the mitigation of drug-related criminal behaviour among individuals still lacks in most of nations and has led to increased drug use and the development of criminal behaviour. 

CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 

5.1 Introduction 

This section of the study presents the conclusion and recommendations based on the discussions carried out in prior sections of this study. For this purpose, a section of summarised findings have been included in this study which provides the summary of overall research findings and discussion carried out in this study. In addition to the summarised finding, the researcher has also included the future implications which provides the direction for the future researchers considering the limitations of this study. In addition to this, the recommendations have been provided considering the findings from the analysis and discussion carried out. Lastly, the conclusion is provided at the end of this section. 

5.2 Summarised Findings 

The data gathered from the secondary sources of information presented significant findings and it was determined from the analysis that drug use is related to the violent criminal activity. It is due to the reason that most of the criminals were found to have use of drugs in most of the studies. On the other hand, some of the individuals only committed the crime for the sake of fulfilling their addiction needs. Out of 10 studies which were considered for the analysis, 9 of them suggested the relationship among the drug use and criminal behaviour. However, only one study found to have negative association of the drug use and criminal behaviour among the individuals. With respect to the factors besides drug use that lead to criminality behaviour, it has been determined that there are various other factors as well which results in the criminality behaviour among individuals. While, the factors which were prominent and determined in most of the studies include psychopathy, low self-control and difficult temperament. In terms of the existing policies and legislation aimed at mitigating drug-related criminal behaviour, it has been determined that drug decriminalisation and legalisation has been adopted by various countries which leads to the removal of criminal offence on people with small amount of drugs. However, there has been much criticism on this legislation as small dealers now have the license to trade the drug until they get caught. In this way, the consumption of the drug along the criminality behaviour will prevail more among the young people. In addition to this, increased investment in the rehabilitation and treatment services has also been the prominent policies and legislation aimed at mitigating drug-related criminal behaviour. 

5.3 Future Implications 

This study has been carried out for the purpose of exploring the relationship among the drug use and criminal behaviour. In this manner, the study has focused on determining the association among the two factors and planned to present significant findings for the governing bodies and regulatory authorities in terms of mitigating the drug use and related criminal behaviour among the individuals. However, the research has only focused on the relationship among the drug use and criminal behaviour caused by the use of substance. Therefore, it is suggested for the future researchers to determine other factors which leads to the criminal behaviour in terms of increasing the scope of this study. In addition to this, the study has adopted the secondary methods of data collection which restricts the researcher to present the findings based on the previous information available. It is suggested for the future researchers to consider primary methods of data collection in order for them to incorporate the real time response and updated information regarding the use of drugs and criminal behaviour. Through this, the scope of this study can be improved and the researchers might be able to present more significant findings while contributing towards the existing literature.

5.4 Recommendations 

On the basis of finding derived from the previous section, several recommendations have been developed. These recommendations are provided below:

• It is recommended for the parents to have preventive measures with respect to drug use among their children. It is due to the reason that most of the drug use addiction among people was at young age which increased with the age. The studies which investigated the factors for the use of drug among individuals, several social issues and toxic environment at home at the very early age remained constant. Therefore, it is suggested for the parents to take serious considerations with respect to the environment. 
• In addition to this, it is also suggested for the governing bodies and regulatory authorities to take preventive measures such as the drug decriminalisation and legalisation. It is due to the reason that drug decriminalisation and legalisation was found to have significant results in terms of reducing the consumption of drugs and generating funds for the treatment of drug addicts. In this way, through the reduction of drug consumption among the individuals and especially among the young generation, there can be significant reduction in the criminal activities of development of criminality behaviour. 
• Thirdly, it is also suggested for the individuals to refrain from the use of drugs as the addition of these drugs end up person committing crime. It is to fulfil the need of drug addiction and to take every possible step which is either legal or illegal. Therefore, refraining from the use of drug can make less prone to individuals in terms of developing the criminality behaviour among them. 

5.5 Conclusion 

Drug misuse and criminal behaviour have both become severe and substantial societal issues and problems which are having serious effects and influences on the health-care and safety of the population. Around, 269 million people and individuals globally were involved and engaged in illicit drug consumption and abuse at least once during 2018, which contributes to the worldwide drugs and substance epidemic posing a critical risk and threat people’s security and well-being. The connotation among the consumption and misuse of drugs, as well as criminal behaviours and actions is multidimensional as well as complicated depending upon many different kinds and aspects of personal, societal, and environmental factors. There has been much investigation and exploration regarding the association between substance and drug misuse as well as criminality, there is still knowledge gap within the literature comprehending and understanding the fundamental processes, procedures, causal relationships and associations that interconnect these phenomena. Therefore, this study aimed to explore the relationship between drug use and criminal behaviours. 

For this purpose, the researcher adopted interpretive philosophy and inductive approach. It is due to the reason that no hypothesis were tested in this study and the major focus has been towards the development of theory instead of testing one. In this manner, the qualitative research design was adopted and the data wad gathered from the secondary sources of information. The systematic literature review was conducted in this study for the purpose of analysing the secondary data. In total, 10 studies were considered for the analysis which were recruited based on the inclusion and exclusion criteria. The results of the study determined that there is significant association among the drug use and criminality behaviour as most of the studies (90%) suggested the relationship. This relationship has been due to the reason that most of the criminals which were sample population of the analysed studies were drug addicts. Most of the criminals only committed offence in order to fulfil their drug needs. Therefore, it is suggested for the governing bodies to take preventive measures for the purpose of reducing the drug use among young adults. 

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